King Louis VI succeeded to the French throne in 1108 and began to reassert central royal power. [81] The new king presented himself as having restored order to a trouble-torn country. [44] Violence broke out, leading to savage, confused street fighting as both sides attempted to take control of the city. [191] Henry believed that this went against assurances Thurstan had previously made and exiled him from England until the King and Archbishop came to a negotiated solution the following year. [204] He donated money to the abbey at Cluny itself, and after 1120 gave generously to Reading Abbey, a Cluniac establishment. [265][nb 27] Henry appears to have chosen her because she was attractive and came from a prestigious noble line. [62] By 1094, he was allocating lands and castles to his followers as if he were the Duke of Normandy. Henry was the only child born in England. The chronicler Abbot Suger suggested that the incident was embarrassing for Henry, since he had refused battle, but it was a sound military decision. White argued that Sibyl's mother was Sibyl Corbet, although more recent research by Kathleen Thompson discredits this theory. In 1427, it is believed that Catherine began an affair with Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset. John's powerful mother Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, had a tenuous claim to Toulouse and Auvergne in southern France, and was the former wife of Louis VII of France. [28] Robert's invasion force failed to leave Normandy, leaving William Rufus secure in England. [130] In 1105, Henry sent his friend Robert Fitzhamon and a force of knights into the Duchy, apparently to provoke a confrontation with Duke Robert. William Rufus became king of England. They had lost three sons by this time and had no heirs other than James’ cousin, the Duke of Albany, who was exiled in France. [229] By 1114, some of the resident Norman lords were under attack, while in Mid-Wales, Owain ap Cadwgan blinded one of the political hostages he was holding, and in North Wales Gruffudd ap Cynan threatened the power of the Earl of Chester. [132] Henry occupied western Normandy, and advanced east on Bayeux, where Fitzhamon was held. [68] In 1095 Pope Urban II called the First Crusade, encouraging knights from across Europe to join. The chapel, headed by the chancellor, looked after the royal documents, the chamber dealt with financial affairs and the master-marshal was responsible for travel and accommodation. [190] Canterbury, traditionally the senior of the two establishments, had long argued that the Archbishop of York should formally promise to obey their Archbishop, but York argued that the two episcopates were independent within the English Church and that no such promise was necessary. [327] Historians have also debated the extent to which Henry's administrative reforms genuinely constituted an introduction of what Hollister and John Baldwin have termed systematic, "administrative kingship", or whether his outlook remained fundamentally traditional. [2] These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the Kingdom of France, which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, under only the nominal control of the king. [95] Despite some dissenting voices, the council concluded that although Matilda had lived in a convent, she had not actually become a nun and was therefore free to marry, a judgement that Anselm then affirmed, allowing the marriage to proceed. [118] William de Warenne, the Earl of Surrey, was accused of fresh crimes, which were not covered by the Alton amnesty, and was banished from England. She was also a strong-willed and capable ruler in her own right, the wife of the Holy Roman Emperor, and the mother … [65] Henry responded, but travelled to London instead of joining the main campaign further east in Normandy, possibly at the request of the King, who in any event abandoned the campaign and returned to England. His father, Henry II of England, had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard – Anjou, Normandy and England – and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany. [56][nb 7] He left for Brittany and crossed over into France. Philip, elder … [219], Henry responded to the French and Angevin threat by expanding his own network of supporters beyond the Norman borders. [59] In 1092, Henry and his followers seized the Normandy town of Domfront. [11] He was given military training by an instructor called Robert Achard, and Henry was knighted by his father on 24 May 1086. [129], Normandy continued to disintegrate into chaos. [90] Historian Warren Hollister argues that Henry and Matilda were emotionally close, but their union was also certainly politically motivated. [247] Fulk left for the Levant, leaving the County of Maine in Henry's care, and the King was free to focus on crushing his remaining enemies. [226] In a bid to isolate Louis diplomatically, Henry betrothed his young son, William Adelin, to Fulk's daughter Matilda, and married his illegitimate daughter Matilda to Duke Conan III of Brittany, creating alliances with Anjou and Brittany respectively. [63] William Rufus began to support Henry with money, encouraging his campaign against Robert, and Henry used some of this to construct a substantial castle at Domfront. Possibly Rohese, wife of Henry de la Pomerai. [159] At the heart was his domestic household, called the domus; a wider grouping was termed the familia regis, and formal gatherings of the court were termed curia. [49] They nominated each other as heirs to England and Normandy, excluding Henry from any succession while either one of them lived. [275] In the spring of 1124, campaigning began again. The following May, Henry also found his daughter a new husband, in the person of Geoffrey, the rather young heir to the County of Anjou. [213] Robert II of Flanders also briefly joined the alliance, before his death in 1111. [153], Henry ruled through the various barons and lords in England and Normandy, whom he manipulated skilfully for political effect. John's eldest son became Henry III, and the French were driven away from the country. [87], On 11 November 1100 Henry married Matilda, the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. [137] After some initial tactical successes, he turned south-west towards the castle of Tinchebray. [325], Interpretation of Henry's personality by historians has altered over time. Western Normandy had originally been intended for Henry's late brother Richard, and was suitably remote from the capital in Rouen. King of England from 1100. Modern historians more commonly use 28 September, although historian Judith Green is less certain. [155] He also had a reputation for punishing those barons who stood against him, and he maintained an effective network of informers and spies who reported to him on events. On the day of Henry VII's death, 21 April 1509, the throne passed to his only living son, Henry VIII. [94], Matilda had been educated in a sequence of convents, however, and may well have taken the vows to formally become a nun, which formed an obstacle to the marriage progressing. The Scottish Regent Lord Arran agreed to the marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. [176] Many of the officials that ran Henry's system were termed "new men", relatively low-born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators, managing justice or the royal revenues. [77] Tempers flared, but Henry, supported by Henry de Beaumont and Robert of Meulan, held sway and persuaded the barons to follow him. In addition to Matilda and William,[88] Henry possibly had a short-lived son, Richard, with his first wife, Matilda of Scotland. [7] There is little documentary evidence for his early years; historians Warren Hollister and Kathleen Thompson suggest he was brought up predominantly in England, while Judith Green argues he was initially brought up in the Duchy. Although Henry and Catherine were married for many years by now, they did not have a male heir to inherit the English throne. [271] Amaury was joined by several other Norman barons, headed by Waleran de Beaumont, one of the sons of Henry's old ally, Robert of Meulan. On the day of Elizabeth's death, 24 March 1603, Elizabeth's potential heirs were from the lines of her father's two sisters: Upon Elizabeth's death, despite Henry VIII's will, the throne passed to King James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. After the death of Richard's uncle, John of Gaunt, in 1399, the two main contenders to be Richard II's heir were: Richard disinherited Henry, who was in exile, but Richard was deposed and Bolingbroke became king as Henry IV.[2]. [100] He may have chosen some of his noble mistresses for political purposes, but the evidence to support this theory is limited. During her reign, Elizabeth I never named a successor. [317] The three main chroniclers to describe the events of Henry's life were William of Malmesbury, Orderic Vitalis, and Henry of Huntingdon, but each incorporated extensive social and moral commentary into their accounts and borrowed a range of literary devices and stereotypical events from other popular works. King Henry I died on 4 August 1060 in Vitry-en-Brie, France, and was interred in the Basilica of St Denis. Emma Mason is more suspicious, giving credence to the theory that William Rufus was murdered, either by Henry or by agents of the French king. [108] The King held court in April and June, where the nobility renewed their oaths of allegiance to him, but their support still appeared partial and shaky. [47], In the aftermath, Robert forced Henry to leave Rouen, probably because Henry's role in the fighting had been more prominent than his own, and possibly because Henry had asked to be formally reinstated as the count of the Cotentin. All documents and laws were written in Latin. [142] Duke Robert was taken prisoner, but Bellême escaped. Henry had conducted a campaign in South Wales in 1108, pushing out royal power in the region and colonising the area around Pembroke with Flemings. [110] Despite English levies and knights owing military service to the Church arriving in considerable numbers, many of his barons did not appear. [315] Matilda did not give up her claim to England and Normandy, appealing at first to the Pope against the decision to allow the coronation of Stephen,[314] and then invading England to start a prolonged civil war, known as the Anarchy, between 1135 and 1153. Desperate to provide her own heir, Mary married and hoped to have a child. [61] Over the next two years, Henry re-established his network of supporters across western Normandy, forming what Judith Green terms a "court in waiting". [220] Some Norman barons deemed unreliable were arrested or dispossessed, and Henry used their forfeited estates to bribe his potential allies in the neighbouring territories, in particular Maine. [188] Despite this argument, the pair worked closely together, combining to deal with Duke Robert's invasion of 1101, for example, and holding major reforming councils in 1102 and 1108. [230] Henry sent three armies into Wales that year, with Gilbert Fitz Richard leading a force from the south, Alexander, King of Scotland, pressing from the north and Henry himself advancing into Mid-Wales. But Robert and William Rufus forced him out in 1091. [31] Robert attempted to go back on his deal with Henry and re-appropriate the county, but Henry's grip was already sufficiently firm to prevent this. It is uncertain what led Waleran de Beaumont to rebel against Henry. [212] He inherited the county of Maine, but refused to recognise Henry as his feudal lord and instead allied himself with Louis. William of Malmesbury described that those present recognised Matilda as the legitimate heir on the basis of her paternal and maternal royal descent; Work by historian Geoffrey White in the 1940s produced an extensive list of Henry's illegitimate children, which forms the basis of the most recent academic research, by Kathleen Thompson. His father was Count of Anjou and his mother Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. The only child that Catherine had who grew to adulthood was a daughter, the future Mary I of England . Anselm threatened excommunication, and in July 1105 the two men finally negotiated a solution. Henry was born in Selby, Yorkshire. [79], Henry was hastily crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 5 August by Maurice, the bishop of London, as Anselm, the archbishop of Canterbury, had been exiled by William Rufus, and Thomas, the archbishop of York, was in the north of England at Ripon. Contemporary chroniclers approved of Henry's firm action. 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